Table 2 Participants’ prior knowledge and training in artificial intelligence (AI) (N = 642)

1. Have you ever heard about AI concepts in general? (yes)

494 (76.9)

201 (88.5)

58 (53.7)

82 (78.8)

153 (75.4)

< 0.001

2. Have you ever heard about machine learning and/or deep learning concepts? (yes)

405 (63.1)

152 (67)

52 (48.1)

62 (59.6)

139 (68.5)

0.002

3. Do you know the difference between deep learning and machine concepts? (yes)

269 (41.9)

70 (30.8)

64 (59.3)

56 (53.8)

79 (38.9)

< 0.001

4. Have you ever received formal knowledge and training about AI in your theoretical courses in your school? (yes)

236 (36.8)

66 (29.1)

59 (54.6)

36 (34.6)

75 (36.9)

< 0.001

5. Have you ever received knowledge and training in AI anywhere outside your courses/school (like social media, conferences, or online training courses)? (yes)

350 (54.5)

83 (36.6)

68 (63)

49 (47.1)

150 (73.9)

< 0.001

6. Have you ever received formal knowledge and training in AI through your practicum courses within your school? (yes)

127 (19.8)

22 (9.7)

34 (31.5)

23 (22.1)

48 (23.6)

< 0.001

7. Prior basic knowledge and training in AI total score: six items, score range 0–6

2.93 ± 1.44

2.62 ± 1.29

3.1 ± 1.63

2.96 ± 1.46

3.17 ± 1.44

< 0.001

Knowledge categories

Low (< 60%)

426 (66.4)

165 (72.7)

62 (57.4)

64 (61.5)

135 (66.5)

0.003

Moderate (60–80%)

127 (19.8)

47 (20.7)

24 (22.2)

24 (23.1)

32 (15.8)

High (> 80%)

89 (13.9)

15 (6.6)

22 (20.4)

16 (15.4)

36 (17.7)