Table 2 Comparisons of leaning outcomes, cognitive load estimates, satisfaction, and learning acceptance between the IBVR and TBVR modules

Participants

n = 10

n = 10

Learning outcomes

Milestone (overall levels)

8 (6–9)

6 (6–7)

0.04

Small quiz (number of correct answers)

 Pretest

3 (3–3)

3 (3–3)

0.56

 Posttest

3 (3–3)

3 (3–3)

0.41

Percentage small quiz change (%)

0 (0–38)

0 (− 27–38)

0.49

DOPS (overall scores)

140 (134–147)

129 (124–134)

< 0.01

CLS

6 (5–7)

5 (5–6)

0.91

TLX

53 (41–65)

48 (40–61)

0.39

 Mental demand

13 (10–15)

12 (7–14)

0.26

 Physical demand

6 (4–12)

6 (4–13)

0.78

 Temporal demand

8 (5–13)

8 (4–10)

0.59

 Performance

10 (5–15)

12 (4–15)

0.77

 Effort

11 (8–12)

9 (7–13)

> 0.99

 Frustration

5 (3–7)

3 (2–5)

0.38

CLC

19 (17–21)

19 (18–21)

0.86

 Intrinsic cognitive load

4 (2–5)

4 (3–4)

0.48

 Extraneous cognitive load

8 (7–9)

8 (7–8)

0.26

 Germane cognitive load

8 (6–9)

8 (7–9)

0.08

GSS

8 (7–9)

8 (8–10)

0.03

AttrakDiff2

 Pragmatic quality

1.7 (1.1–2.5)

2.1 (1.3–2.6)

0.09

 Hedonic stimulation

1.5 (0.9–1.8)

1.9 (1.5–2.4)

0.01

 Hedonic identification

1.6 (1.2–1.8)

2.1 (1.7–2.7)

0.03

 Attractiveness

1.6 (1.3–1.9)

2.0 (1.4–2.6)

0.11