Impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction in mitigating test anxiety and enhancing academic achievement among vocational education students at Nigerian universities

Abstract

Background

The inclusion of behavioral therapy and stress reduction techniques among vocational students of the Nigerian universities is crucial for enhancing their practical skill acquisition and career prospects in challenging academic scenarios. This study explored the combined effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction in reducing test anxiety among business education students in a measurement and evaluation course.

Methods

Employing a randomized control trial with a pretest-posttest design, the research draws responses from 483 students from two universities in Southeast Nigeria. The participants were randomly assigned to either the treatment or waitlist control groups on the basis of set inclusion criteria. Data collection was conducted via four different instruments, and the treatment group participated in a Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (CBT-MBSR) program. Evaluations of both groups were conducted at three different stages: before the intervention, immediately after the intervention, and during the follow-up period. Analysis was carried out via repeated-measures ANOVA and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA).

Results

The results indicated that TVET students who underwent the CBT-MBSR intervention had significantly lower post-treatment test anxiety scores than those in the wait-list control group. The intervention also had a significant multivariate effect on reducing test anxiety, improved mindfulness, students’ academic achievement, and their well-being (F value = 1168.52 (p =.001, η² = 0.752).

Conclusion

This study assessed the efficacy of CBT with MBSR in reducing test anxiety, improving academic performance, and increasing well-being among students in TVET settings. The study revealed how CBT helped reduce test anxiety, thereby improving students’ academic performance through increasing their concentration. Thus, this study provides fresh knowledge on how to improve psychological well-being and educational performance by introducing a new method of combining MBSR and CBT, which enriches the literature with a dual-modality approach that helps students reduce their anxieties and fosters their personal growth. This study has practical implications for university administrators, educators, and researchers and offers several recommendations.

Clinical Trial Number

Not applicable.

Introduction

Anxiety is a prevalent psychological condition that significantly affects students’ mental health, manifesting through various emotional, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms. Students often express these symptoms as feelings of anxiety or worry, underscoring the profound impact of this condition on their academic and personal well-being [7]. Specifically, test anxiety is a distinct type of anxiety that emerges prominently during academic evaluations, leading to adverse academic outcomes. This form of anxiety does not indicate intellectual deficiencies but rather reflects the intense stress experienced in evaluative situations [7, 42]. Test and examination anxiety involve a combination of physiological and psychological distress that occurs before, during, or after exams, significantly impairing academic performance [14]. Students with elevated test anxiety typically exhibit maladaptive cognitive processes and excessive worry, which hinder their ability to process and retrieve information effectively during examinations [28]. The cognitive aspects of test anxiety include persistent worry and self-deprecating thoughts, while the affective components involve physical symptoms such as muscle tension and tremors. Additionally, the behavioral dimensions are characterized by poor study habits and procrastination [28].

In Nigeria, test anxiety significantly undermines student achievement, with studies indicating that approximately 50% of students experience heightened levels of anxiety during tests and terminal examinations [14]. This issue has been consistently linked to poor academic performance in standardized assessments, affecting a substantial segment of the student population. Test and examination anxiety encompass multiple dimensions: cognitive, emotional, physiological, and behavioral. The cognitive aspect involves disruptions to mental processes such as concentration and memory recall, which are crucial for academic success during exams. These disruptions manifest through profound fears and self-doubt, significantly impairing student achievement [45, 48].

On an emotional level, test anxiety induces considerable psychological distress, potentially diminishing educational achievement and overall mental well-being. This affective component includes acute physical reactions such as muscle tension and tremors experienced in evaluative situations. These reactions not only affect immediate academic performance but also increase the risk of educational burnout over time [45, 48]. Physiologically, test anxiety manifests through symptoms such as tachycardia and excessive perspiration, which disrupt exam performance and compromise physical comfort, ultimately impacting students’ overall health [29]. Despite the significant effects of these symptoms, they often remain unaddressed in educational strategies, highlighting a gap in current intervention approaches [7, 14]. Behaviorally, anxiety provokes maladaptive practices such as avoidance of study and compulsive over preparation. These behaviors not only hinder academic success but also intensify stress, negatively affecting overall health management. Such maladaptive responses reinforce a cycle of anxiety and avoidance, severely impairing effective exam preparation and performance [45]. While test anxiety has been widely studied in general academic settings [7, 50], its specific impact on technically demanding courses, such as measurement and evaluation in vocational education, remains underexplored. Addressing these complex manifestations of test anxiety requires a comprehensive approach that integrates effective behavioral interventions into the educational framework. Such an approach would mitigate the diverse effects of test anxiety while enhancing both student well-being and academic performance [48].

This study assessed the combined effects of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) in alleviating test anxiety among vocational education students, using standardized test anxiety scales. The study posits that by simultaneously addressing cognitive aspects, such as pervasive negative thoughts and worry through CBT, and emotional and physiological symptoms, such as fear and elevated stress responses through MBSR, a more holistic reduction in anxiety can be achieved. This dual-modality treatment strategy aims to improve coping mechanisms and academic achievement within the high-pressure context of examinations.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is recognized as a structured psychological intervention that has been empirically validated to reduce symptoms across various anxiety conditions, including test and examination anxiety [12]. Specifically, CBT helps individuals identify and modify detrimental cognitive patterns and behaviors associated with test anxiety, incorporating techniques such as relaxation exercises and simulated test-taking scenarios to reduce anxiety and enhance achievement [12]. CBT has been widely recognized for its effectiveness in alleviating anxiety symptoms by targeting dysfunctional thought patterns and maladaptive behaviors (Hofmann et al., 2019). Through techniques such as cognitive restructuring and exposure therapy, CBT helps individuals challenge and modify irrational beliefs associated with anxiety, leading to significant symptom reduction [24]. The structured, goal-oriented nature of CBT equips individuals with practical coping strategies to manage anxiety-provoking situations effectively [8]. Research consistently supports the efficacy of CBT not only in reducing anxiety symptoms during treatment but also in maintaining long-term improvements (Hofmann et al., 2019). CBT remains a cornerstone in evidence-based treatments for anxiety disorders, providing tangible strategies and enduring relief through systematic therapeutic interventions. Available in diverse formats, including individual, group, and digital modalities, group CBT has been particularly notable for its efficacy in symptom reduction and enhancement of service delivery [11, 48].

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), established by Kabat-Zinn [30], is another therapeutic technique proven effective in managing stress and anxiety. MBSR encourages individuals to engage in mindfulness practices, focusing attentively on the present moment without judgment, thus enhancing mental and emotional awareness. This method has been shown to significantly reduce stress, depression, and anxiety among students, thereby improving their ability to cope in academically demanding situations (Jaismin et al., 2023) [26]. MBSR includes practices such as meditation and body scans, which have been shown to positively impact adolescents’ psychological well-being and equip them with the skills to manage academic challenges and exam-related stress more effectively [33]. The application of MBSR in educational settings promotes increased concentration, reduced anxiety, and resilience, which benefit students academically. Although prior studies (e.g., Williamson et al., [48] Hofmann et al., 2019; Janssen et al., [27, 33] Hofmann et al., 2019) have independently examined and established the efficacy of CBT and MBSR in reducing test anxiety, existing research has not explored their combined effectiveness among vocational education students, who face distinct academic challenges due to the highly applied nature of their coursework.

Strategically, integrating MBSR into educational and corporate schedules through short, guided mindfulness exercises can demystify mindfulness practices and encourage regular participation, making them more accessible and nonintimidating [27]. Hoge et al. [25] suggest that such integration might also involve digital platforms offering on-demand MBSR sessions to broaden accessibility and encourage consistent practice. Collaborating with healthcare professionals to incorporate MBSR as a supplementary treatment could further enhance patient care by comprehensively addressing stress-related health issues [25]. Moreover, incorporating MBSR workshops into academic programs can foster a learning environment committed to promoting mental health and well-being.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) students often face significant challenges in measurement and evaluation courses, critical components of their curriculum that demand precision and the practical application of complex theories. These courses are known to induce heightened levels of stress and anxiety, leading to poor academic achievement [3, 13]. Despite the proven efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) in reducing general academic anxiety across various courses such as economics, physics, and mathematics (Eneogu et al., 2024; Zuo et al., [43, 51], their impact in technically demanding courses like measurement and evaluation in vocational technical education, which require a deep understanding of complex concepts and their practical applications, has not been established. This gap necessitates an investigation into whether integrating these therapeutic approaches within TVET institutions can yield significant improvements in students’ academic achievement, coping strategies, and overall well-being. By doing so, this study extends existing research on anxiety interventions into a specialized academic setting that has received limited empirical attention. Furthermore, while CBT and MBSR have shown substantial benefits in courses with a technical focus on improving students’ general ability to manage stress, anxiety, and test-taking strategies, their successful application in measurement and evaluation could represent a benchmark achievement in TVET institutions. This integration would not only address the unique pressures of these courses but also align therapeutic interventions with the specific challenges faced by students in these areas.

The complexity inherent in measurement and evaluation courses, which require students to apply theoretical knowledge practically and accurately, creates a distinct set of anxieties that might be alleviated by standard implementations of CBT and MBSR. Integrating CBT and MBSR with course-specific strategies, such as guided practical exercises and targeted problem-solving workshops, could enhance their effectiveness. Such tailored approaches would help mitigate achievement anxiety specifically related to the technical and precise nature of the tasks that students face in their assessments. Incorporating CBT and MBSR into measurement and evaluation instructional delivery could not only reduce test anxiety but also enhance the overall educational experience by providing students with the necessary tools to manage the unique challenges of these courses. By doing so, TVET institutions would set a new standard for integrating psychological therapies into technically oriented educational frameworks, potentially transforming how students cope with the demands of such rigorous academic environments. This proactive approach would not only alleviate test anxiety but also promote a deeper understanding and better application of measurement and evaluation principles, leading to improved academic outcomes and better preparedness for professional challenges.

Statement of problem

Test anxiety presents a significant challenge for students across various educational settings, yet much of the existing research has predominantly centered on university students, often overlooking the unique experiences of those in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programs (Eneogu, et al. 2024; Zuo, et al. [51]. Unlike their university counterparts, TVET students must balance both theoretical learning and the rigorous demands of practical skill acquisition, often under intense pressure to meet industry-specific competency requirements. This dual burden can heighten test anxiety, potentially hindering their overall performance and career preparedness [41]. In the Nigerian education system, several TVET degree-awarding programs, including Business Education, Entrepreneurship Education, Home Economics Education, and Industrial and Technical Education, offer specialized training to equip students with both academic and professional competencies [36]. Given that TVET students undergo similar academic pressures as their education-major counterparts while also engaging in hands-on vocational training, it is imperative to examine interventions that address their unique psychological and academic needs. Despite the growing recognition of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) as effective interventions for managing test-related stress, their relevance and application in the TVET context remain inadequately explored. This study, therefore, sought to bridge this gap by investigating the effectiveness of CBT-MBSR interventions in mitigating test anxiety among TVET students alongside their education-major counterparts. By doing so, the research not only enhances the understanding of psychological resilience in vocational education but also provides empirical evidence for innovative approaches to supporting TVET learners, ensuring they thrive both academically and in their respective professional domains. Based on the above background, we hypothesized that the:

H1: CBT and MBSR have significant negative impact on students’ academic test anxiety, mindfulness, and subjective fitness over time.

H2: CBT and MBSR significantly improve academic achievement among business students in Nigerian universities.

H3: CBT and MBSR significantly enhance students’ overall well-being.

Fig. 1

Hypotheses Model. Source: Researchers, 2025 developed using draw.io software

Theoretical framework

The present study was anchored on two theories: psychoanalytic theory and cognitive activation theory of stress.

Psychoanalytic theory

The Psychoanalytic Theory, propounded by Sigmund Freud in 1896, postulates that human behavior is deeply influenced by unconscious drives, repressed emotions, and early childhood experiences [17]. According to this theory, the psyche consists of three major components: the id, which represents innate desires and impulses; the ego, which mediates between the id and reality; and the superego, which internalizes moral values and societal norms [18]. Anxiety arises when unconscious conflicts between these elements remain unresolved, often leading to defense mechanisms such as repression, denial, or projection [4].

When examining the impact of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) in mitigating test anxiety and enhancing academic achievement among business students in Nigerian universities, psychoanalytic theory offers an essential foundation for understanding the deeper origins of test anxiety. Students may experience heightened anxiety due to repressed fears of failure, internalized academic pressure, or unresolved childhood experiences [32]. Defense mechanisms such as avoidance and self-doubt may prevent them from fully engaging with academic challenges [4]. While CBT and MBSR primarily focus on conscious cognitive restructuring and mindfulness techniques, psychoanalytic insights highlight the unconscious emotional conflicts that contribute to persistent test anxiety [32].

In the Nigerian academic context, the psychoanalytic perspective is relevant in understanding how past traumas, parental expectations, and societal pressures shape students’ anxiety levels and academic motivation. Given the highly competitive and exam-oriented culture, students may unconsciously associate test-taking with self-worth and validation, leading to excessive stress and performance inhibition [4]. By integrating psychoanalytic concepts with evidence-based interventions like CBT and MBSR, a more holistic approach to managing test anxiety can be developed, addressing both unconscious and conscious influences on students’ academic performance and emotional well-being.

Cognitive activation theory of stress

The Cognitive Activation Theory of Stress (CATS), developed by Holger Ursin and Hege Eriksen in 2004, posits that stress reactions are primarily contingent upon individuals’ cognitive appraisals of external stressors. Central to this theory are two forms of expectancies: outcome expectancies, which encompass beliefs about the consequences of an event, and self-efficacy expectancies, which involve perceptions of one’s ability to manage challenges effectively. CATS provides a useful framework for understanding how individuals interpret and respond to stress, particularly in academic settings. It emphasizes the role of expectancies (beliefs about outcomes and one’s ability to manage challenges) in shaping stress responses and academic performance [44]. When students perceive a situation as an overwhelming threat, stress becomes harmful. However, if they view it as a challenge, it becomes more manageable.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) help students modify these stress perceptions. CBT restructures negative thought patterns, allowing students to view exams as manageable challenges rather than intimidating threats, which enhances their confidence and ability to cope [20]. Similarly, MBSR fosters mindfulness and emotional regulation, reducing stress reactivity and helping students develop a calmer, more balanced approach to exam-related stressors [22]. Research supports this approach. Yılmazer et al. [49] found that mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) significantly reduce test anxiety, improving students’ psychological resilience. Additionally, meta-analyses by Goldin et al. [20] suggest that CBT and MBSR strengthen the brain’s emotion-regulation systems, reinforcing positive stress appraisals. By integrating CATS into educational interventions, students can shift their mindset about stress, reducing test anxiety while enhancing academic achievement, resilience, and overall well-being.

The justification for applying these theories is that this research elucidated the cognitive adjustments facilitated by the interventions, assessing their influence on stress responses and academic outcomes. Hence, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which therapeutic interventions function and underscores the potential for developing specific educational strategies that address the cognitive dimensions of anxiety in academic settings. This approach promises to not only alleviate anxiety but also foster an academic environment conducive to improved learning outcomes and student well-being.

Methodology

This section contained the design of the study, population for the study, procedures, instrumentation, validity, and method of data analysis.

Study design

This study adopted a pretest-posttest randomized control trial (RCT) design to evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) in mitigating test anxiety among vocational education students in universities in Southeast Nigeria. An RCT is a robust experimental design that facilitates the identification of cause-and-effect relationships by randomly assigning participants to intervention and control groups, thereby minimizing selection bias and enhancing the internal validity of the study [10]. The pretest-posttest RCT design is particularly suitable for assessing the efficacy of interventions like CBT and MBSR in reducing test anxiety. By measuring anxiety levels before and after the interventions, this design allows for precise evaluation of changes attributable to the treatments. Randomization ensures that confounding variables, such as baseline anxiety levels and prior therapeutic experiences, are evenly distributed across groups, thereby enhancing the reliability of the results. Previous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral interventions in reducing anxiety among students. For instance, a study by Anyamene and Udeagha [5] employed a quasi-experimental design to assess the impact of cognitive restructuring techniques on test anxiety among secondary school students in Anambra State, Nigeria, and found significant reductions in anxiety levels post-intervention. Similarly, Owens-Sogolo [37] utilized a pretest-posttest control group design to evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive restructuring in reducing test anxiety among senior secondary school students in Benin Metropolis, Edo State, Nigeria, reporting notable decreases in anxiety among participants. In the context of this study, the RCT design is ideal for evaluating the efficacy of CBT and MBSR in reducing test anxiety among vocational education students. This approach ensures result reliability by controlling for confounders and facilitating comparisons of pre- and post-intervention anxiety levels. The findings from this study are expected to contribute to the development of evidence-based strategies for managing test anxiety, thereby enhancing the academic performance and overall well-being of vocational education students in Southeast Nigeria.

Participants and sampling

The study participants were 483 TVET students, consisting of 275 students from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN), and 208 from Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu Alike Ikwo (AE-FUNAI), Ebonyi State. Additionally, the adequacy of the sample size was established through G-Power, version 3.1, which yielded a power of 0.89. The demographic characteristics of the participants are detailed in Table 1. The inclusion criteria for the study are as follows: (i) participants must be currently enrolled students who have completed the first semester measurement and evaluation course examination and are registered for the second semester of the same course; (ii) they must have demonstrated low academic achievement in the preceding examinations in similar courses, such as Research Design in Vocational and Technical Education; (iii) they must exhibit either mild, moderate, or severe symptoms of test and examination anxiety, quantified by the STAS score; and (iv) participants must express their voluntary consent to participate in the study (see Fig. 1). The exclusion criteria included any prior participation in analogous therapeutic interventions and any current engagement in psychiatric treatments (Fig. 2).

Table 1 Demographic composition of the study participants showing baseline equivalence. Total population = 483 TVET students

Fig. 2

Consort flow diagram for population distribution. Adapted from: http://www.consort-statement.org/consort-statement/flow-diagram

Procedure

Prior to the intervention, the researcher visited the heads of departments at various universities studied to obtain necessary permission and disseminate information about the study. During these initial engagements, the benefits of the intervention were thoroughly communicated, and the recruitment process began. This exercise took place between January and February 2024. A total of 509 TVET and education students expressed their interest and consented to participate by signing informed consent forms. Eligibility for participation was determined via the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and included specific inclusion criteria: (i) current enrollment in measurement and evaluation courses; (ii) documented evidence of low academic achievement; and (iii) mild to moderate anxiety symptoms as quantified by the Students’ Generalized Academic Anxiety Test Scale (SGAATS). Among the 509 volunteers, 483 met all the inclusion criteria and were subsequently randomized into two groups: 275 in the treatment group and 208 in the waitlist control group. Randomization was conducted via a simple random sampling technique, where participants chose an envelope from a container labeled ‘TG’ for the treatment group or ‘WCG’ for the waitlist control group to ensure unbiased assignment.

The participants completed a demographic questionnaire to capture essential data on age and sex. The randomization process was safeguarded against bias by ensuring that demographic information was concealed from the research assistant responsible for participant allocation. Throughout the study, the researchers emphasized ethical practices and the confidentiality of personal and interaction data.

Baseline data were collected at Time 1 (pre-intervention) via the SGAATS. Afterward, the treatment group then engaged in a 14-week CBT-MBSR program, with each session lasting 120 min, which was conducted between April and July 2024. A posttest assessment (Time 2) was carried out immediately after the intervention, while a follow-up evaluation was conducted after two months (Time 3) to determine the persistence of the intervention’s effects. The study maintained blinding procedures for participants, research assistants, and data analysts during recruitment, treatment, and data analyses. Comparative analyses between the treatment and waitlist control groups were meticulously performed, confirming that there were no significant disparities in sex distribution or average age, thereby validating the baseline equivalence of the demographic characteristics. The study adopted the Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy approaches developed by Williams, et al. [46]. The approaches include: Mindfulness skills development, metacognitive awareness, cognitive reactivity, emotion regulation, depressive symptom reduction, suicidal ideation and hopelessness reduction, relapse prevention and psychological resilience [47].

Cognitive behavioral therapy and Mindfulness-Based stress reduction program

Cognitive‒behavioral therapy (CBT) integrated with mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) intervention constitutes a structured 14-week guided self-help program grounded in established therapeutic protocols. Each session, conducted weekly for 120 min, was group oriented, led by four CBT experts and supervised by two MBSR therapists. The major focus of this intervention was to diminish test anxiety among students by leveraging the synergistic effects of CBT and MBSR. This integrative approach employed both conventional CBT methodologies such as behavioral experiments, thought records, and thematic discussions on cognition, behavior, and emotions and incorporated fundamental MBSR practices aimed at enhancing mindfulness and stress management capabilities.

Core MBSR Practices Included:

Mindfulness meditation

Initiating sessions with mindfulness meditation focused on breathing and bodily sensations to cultivate present-centered, nonjudgmental awareness, aiding in anxiety reduction and concentration enhancement.

Body scan

This practice involves a deliberate attentional scan of the body to identify and release tension, deepening participants’ awareness of their physical states.

Mindful breathing

Techniques were introduced to facilitate deep, controlled breathing to stabilize the nervous system and mitigate the physiological manifestations of anxiety, which are particularly useful in testing scenarios. The participants were advised to integrate these mindfulness practices into their daily routines, reinforcing the daily application of these skills. The fusion of CBT and MBSR was designed to equip students with refined cognitive strategies and effective coping mechanisms essential for stress management.

The intervention was meticulously structured as follows:

Initial sessions (1–3)

These sessions were dedicated to outlining the intervention’s objectives, building rapport among participants, establishing group norms, and discussing the fundamentals of anxiety, its triggers, and manifestations.

Mid-Phase sessions (4–7)

Focus shifted to analyzing anxiety-provoking events, exploring their consequences, and transforming maladaptive thoughts into rational, constructive perspectives. Each session concludes with a review of practiced skills and the assignment of pertinent homework to reinforce learned techniques.

Later sessions (8–11)

These sessions concentrated on the deep application of CBT and MBSR techniques, with each week devoted to a specific skill or strategy, facilitating focused discussion and practice. This structured approach ensured consistent engagement with therapeutic techniques and mindfulness practices, reinforcing the integration of learned strategies into participants’ daily lives. The dual application of CBT and MBSR not only provided a robust framework for understanding and managing anxiety but also promoted an environment of collaborative therapeutic learning, akin to participatory group workshops.

Instrumentation

The following sets of instruments were used for data collection:

CBT was assessed through cognitive restructuring, exposure therapy, behavioral activation, self-efficacy in test situations, and relaxation techniques, capturing how students reframed negative thoughts, confronted stressors, engaged in positive behaviors, built confidence, and used relaxation strategies. MBSR was examined through present-moment awareness, non-judgmental acceptance, breathing and body awareness, mindful coping strategies, and emotional regulation, reflecting students’ ability to stay present, accept thoughts, regulate emotions, and apply mindfulness techniques in academic settings. A structured questionnaire measured these indicators using Likert scales. Cognitive restructuring, exposure therapy, behavioral activation, self-efficacy, relaxation techniques, breathing awareness, and mindful coping strategies were rated on a five-point scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree), while present-moment awareness, non-judgmental acceptance, and emotional regulation were measured on a seven-point scale from 1 (Not at all true) to 7 (Very true) for a more refined analysis. Higher scores indicated greater adoption of CBT-MBSR strategies and stronger mindfulness traits. These scales provided insights into how CBT-MBSR influenced students’ psychological responses to academic stress, allowing for a comprehensive evaluation of its effectiveness in reducing anxiety, enhancing mindfulness, and improving subjective fitness.

Students’ generalized academic anxiety test scale

The Students’ Generalized Academic Anxiety Test Scale (SGAATS), adapted from Suinn’s Generalized Test Anxiety Inventory (1969), was used to measure academic anxiety among TVET students [40]. The SGAATS comprises 48 items, structured on a 5-point Likert scale with response options ranging from Not at All (1) to Very Much (5). The instrument tested indicators like worrying about test/exam performance, fear of negative evaluation, physical symptoms (e.g., sweating, trembling), difficulty concentrating, and procrastination. The possible scores range from a minimum of 48 to a maximum of 240. A score between 48 and 59 signifies the absence of test anxiety, while a range of 60 to 95 suggests mild anxiety that is likely within a manageable and healthy threshold. Individuals scoring between 96 and 159 experience moderate levels of test-related stress, whereas scores of 160 and above indicate severe anxiety that may interfere with academic performance and overall well-being. To ensure the validity of the instrument, a factor analysis was conducted using the rotated component matrix. The sample adequacy was confirmed by the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure, which yielded a value of 0.82, indicating a strong suitability for factor analysis. Additionally, Bartlett’s test of sphericity produced a significant result (p =.001), affirming that the correlation matrix was not an identity matrix. For item selection, a benchmark factor loading of 0.5 was applied, ensuring that only items that met this threshold on a single factor were retained. The analysis revealed that three items did not meet this criterion, as they exhibited factorial impurity, leading to their exclusion. Consequently, the original 48-item instrument was refined to a 45-item version for use in this study. Furthermore, the reliability of the revised instrument was determined using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding an internal consistency coefficient of 0.88. This value demonstrates a high level of reliability, confirming the instrument’s effectiveness in measuring test anxiety among students.

Vocational Education Mindfulness Scale (VEMS): The Vocational Education Mindfulness Scale (VEMS) is a 38-item self-report instrument adapted from the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills to assess mindfulness among vocational education students [6]. It evaluates four key aspects: observing, describing, acting with awareness, and accepting without judgment. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale, with possible scores ranging from 15 to 35. A score between 15 and 20 indicates poor mindfulness, while scores from 20 to 25 suggest moderate mindfulness. Individuals scoring 26 and above exhibit high mindfulness levels. The scale was administered at three intervals: pre-intervention, post-intervention, and a three-month follow-up. A factor analysis confirmed the instrument’s validity, with the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure yielding a value of 0.84, while Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant at p =.001. The revised 35-item instrument demonstrated strong reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.88, making it a valuable tool for assessing mindfulness in vocational education settings.

Vocational education students subjective fitness measure

The Vocational Education Students Subjective Fitness Measure (VESSFM), adapted from Greco, Baer, and Smith’s subjective fitness test scale [21], was utilized to evaluate subjective fitness among students, particularly in relation to their dispositions associated with academic anxiety. The 23-item scale includes five indicators such as self-perceived energy, mental clarity, stress coping, regular physical activity, and overall well-being. The scores ranges from 0 to 50. Scores from 0 to 35 is an indication of poor subjective fitness, 36 to 40 shows mild subjective fitness and 41 to 50 is high subjective fitness (indicating enhanced physical and mental well-being). The scale’s reliability was established with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.84, confirming strong internal consistency.

Measurement and evaluation academic test (MEAT)

The Measurement and Evaluation Academic Test (MEAT) was designed following the frameworks established by Butler et al. (2017). The test comprised a 50-item multiple-choice format, with each question offering four answer choices (A–D). The items were structured to assess academic ability across all six levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives [9]. A scoring system was applied, awarding two marks for each correct response while incorrect answers received no points, resulting in a maximum possible score of 100. The internal consistency of the MEAT was determined using Cronbach’s alpha reliability method which yielded a high coefficient of 0.94.

These instruments were selected and implemented with rigorous methodological considerations to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data collected, facilitating a comprehensive evaluation of the intervention’s efficacy in reducing test anxiety among vocational education students.

Validity of the instrument

The validity of the instruments used in this study is supported by previous research confirming their effectiveness in measuring the intended constructs. The Examination Anxiety Scale for Adolescent Students has been validated through its strong correlation with key psychological factors like physiological distress, cognitive interference, and emotional instability [1]. Likewise, the Academic Anxiety Scale has demonstrated strong construct validity by distinguishing between students with high and low academic anxiety while aligning with established models of academic stress [2]. The Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Intervention Effectiveness Scale has been validated in previous studies, proving its ability to measure the impact of CBT on reducing test-related anxiety and improving academic performance [47]. Similarly, the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) Questionnaire has shown strong psychometric properties, particularly in assessing the effectiveness of mindfulness techniques in enhancing stress management and overall well-being [31]. These validations provide empirical support for the reliability and construct validity of the instruments used in this study.

Data analysis

Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to analyze the data collected, to examine changes in test anxiety levels at time intervals, and to compare the effects between the groups studied. The ANOVA model included major effects for time (pretest, posttest, follow-up), group (TP and WCG), and their interaction. A post hoc test was carried out to identify specific differences between time points and groups. This allows for a clear understanding of the treatment effects. Additionally, we used repeated measures analysis of variance to test the effect of CBT in reducing test and examination anxiety among the students using STAS. In addition, multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used to ascertain the effects of CBT on test anxiety, academic achievement, and TVET students’ well-being. In addition, data from both pretest and posttest were structured into CSV format and imported into SmartPLS 4 for structural equation model (SEM) analysis [23, 39]. The data analysis allowed for a clear comparison of the intervention’s impact, showing substantial improvement across the three latent variables (see Figs. 3, 4 and 5). This methodological approach provided a robust framework for evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention in reducing academic anxiety, enhancing mindfulness, and improving subjective fitness among TVET students.

Results

The demographic characteristics of the study participants, as presented in Table 1, revealed the sample composition across the two groups: UNN for the treatment group and AE-FUNAI for the waitlist control group. The study targeted 483 Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) students. As shown in Table 1, in terms of gender distribution, 53.09% of the participants in the Treatment Group at UNN were male, whereas in the Waitlist Control Group at AE-FUNAI, 64.90% of the participants were males. The sex distribution in the two groups was relatively homogenous, with 46.01% females in the UNN group and 45.10% females in the AE-FUNAI group. The results of the chi-square test for sex were 0.574 and sig = 0.643, which means that there were no significant differences between the sex compositions of the two groups. This comparability in gender distribution means that gender cannot be expected to influence the study results biased. The average age of the participants also indicated that the two groups were equivalent in terms of the baseline measure. The treatment group had a mean age of 18.84 years (SD = 5.46); the waitlist control group at AE-FUNAI had a mean age of 18.53 years (SD = 5.63). Furthermore, the results of the chi-square test for Interviewee age were 0.615, and the significance level was 0.657, suggesting that there was no significant difference in the ages of Interviewees and Respondents. The fact that the age distribution was similar for both groups minimized the chances of age confounding factors affecting the outcome of this study. It is evident from the data that there are no significant differences between the treatment and waitlist control groups in terms of the baseline demographic variable, hence ruling out the variables that may confound the study results.

Table 2 Mixed repeated measure (MRM) ANOVA results on the influence of time (I, II, III) on TVET students’ test academic anxiety, mindfulness, and subjective fitness

The results of the Mixed Repeated Measure (MRM) ANOVA presented in Table 2 provide a detailed examination of how Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) influenced TVET students’ academic test anxiety, mindfulness, and subjective fitness over time. The significant F values and partial eta squared (η2) values indicate substantial differences across the three test phases (Pre-Test, Post-Test, and Follow-Up) between the treatment group (CBT and MBSR) and the waitlist control group (WCG). For academic test anxiety, the initial pre-test scores showed similar mean values between the CBT and MBSR group (M = 241.44, SD = 4.28) and the WCG (M = 240.58, SD = 4.24) (see Table 2; Fig. 4). However, after the intervention, the CBT and MBSR group exhibited a substantial decrease in academic test anxiety (M = 43.87, SD = 1.25), whereas the WCG remained relatively unchanged (M = 239.73, SD = 3.88). This reduction was statistically significant (F = 171.28, p =.001), with a large effect size (η² = 0.92). The follow-up scores indicated a sustained effect of the intervention, with the CBT and MBSR group maintaining lower anxiety levels (M = 48.79, SD = 0.82) compared to the WCG (M = 242.48), suggesting long-term efficacy.

Regarding mindfulness, as measured by the Vocational Students Mindfulness Measure (VEMS), the pre-test scores were relatively low and comparable between groups (M = 15.90, SD = 0.48 for CBT and MBSR, and M = 16.31, SD = 0.63 for WCG). However, post-intervention scores increased significantly in the CBT and MBSR group (M = 32.38, SD = 0.63) compared to the WCG (M = 18.74 M = 18.74, SD = 5.71SD = 5.71), with a significant effect (F = 116.33, p =.001, η2 = 0.71). The follow-up phase revealed a further increase in mindfulness (M = 34.15, SD = 0.38), whereas the WCG remained stagnant (M = 18.70, SD = 5.84), reinforcing the lasting impact of the intervention.

Similarly, subjective fitness, as measured by the Vocational Students Subjective Fitness Measure (VESSFM), showed a significant improvement in the CBT and MBSR group. Pre-test scores were initially close between the two groups (M = 33.64, SD = 0.34 vs. M = 30.86, SD = 6.22). However, post-test scores demonstrated a marked improvement in the intervention group (M = 47.04, SD = 0.53) compared to the control (M = 29.44, SD = 4.51), yielding a highly significant result (F = 366.42, p =.001, η2 = 0.79). The follow-up results (M = 49.35, SD = 0.58 vs. M = 30.53, SD = 5.72) further emphasized the sustained benefits of CBT and MBSR interventions (see Fig. 5).

Overall, the findings indicate that CBT and MBSR had a significant negative impact on academic test anxiety, leading to a drastic reduction in anxiety levels, while concurrently fostering an increase in mindfulness and subjective fitness over time. The high effect sizes (η2 ranging from 0.52 to 0.92) suggest that the observed changes were meaningful and robust. The sustained improvements at follow-up further confirm the lasting efficacy of these interventions in enhancing students’ psychological and physical well-being.

Fig. 3

Mean influence of time on students’ academic anxiety, mindfulness and subjective fitness. Source: Developed using SPSS version 28

The results, as shown in Fig. 3, underscore the efficacy of the interventions in significantly ameliorating academic anxiety and augmenting mindfulness and subjective fitness among TVET students. The sustained improvements across these dimensions highlight the potent and enduring impact of the intervention relative to the control condition.

Fig. 4

SEM model Diagram depicting the Academic test Anxiety, Mindfulness and Subjective Fitness of the students before the intervention. Developed by the researchers using SmartPLS 4 Software

Fig. 5

SEM model Diagram depicting an improved Academic test Anxiety, enhanced Mindfulness and Subjective Fitness of the students after the intervention at Time II. Developed by the researchers using SmartPLS 4 Software

Table 3 Post hoc comparisons for academic anxiety, VESSFM, and subjective fitness across time points academic anxiety (Test & Examinations)

Table 3 presents a detailed post hoc analysis of changes in academic anxiety, mindfulness (measured by the TVET Students Mindfulness Measure, VESSFM), and subjective fitness over three time points, clearly revealing statistically significant improvements at each stage of the intervention. For academic test anxiety, there were substantial reductions across all time comparisons. Specifically, from Time I (pretest) to Time II (posttest), the mean anxiety level decreased by 7.22 (SE = 0.43, p <.000, 95% CI [6.36, 7.85]), and from Time I to Time III (follow-up), this reduction was even more pronounced, with a mean decrease of 8.56 (SE = 0.40, p =.001, 95% CI [7.76, 9.53]). Additionally, the comparison between Time II and Time III revealed a smaller but significant reduction, with a mean difference of 1.53 (SE = 0.24, p =.001, 95% CI [1.12, 1.88]), demonstrating sustained and meaningful reductions in academic anxiety due to the intervention. Mindfulness scores, as measured by the VESSFM, also significantly increased over time. From Time I to Time II, there was a mean increase of 9.84 (SE = 0.62, p <.000, 95% CI [8.53, 10.89]), which further increased between Time I and Time III, reaching a mean increase of 15.01 (SE = 0.79, p =.001, 95% CI [11.48, 14.57]). The increase from Time II to Time III was 3.29 (SE = 0.28, p =.001, 95% CI [2.82, 3.85]), indicating that mindfulness continued to improve even beyond the primary intervention period. Subjective fitness demonstrated the most significant gains among the three measured variables. From Time I to Time II, the mean increase was 15.20 (SE = 0.54, p <.000, 95% CI [15.13, 16.39]), and from Time I to Time III, this increase increased to 18.37 (SE = 0.66, p =.001, 95% CI [16.88, 18.64]). The continued improvement from Time II to Time III, with a mean increase of 3.33 (SE = 0.23, p =.000, 95% CI [2.68, 3.42]), further underscores the sustained enhancement in subjective fitness over time. These post hoc results strongly confirm the intervention’s effectiveness across all domains (academic anxiety, mindfulness, and subjective fitness), with each variable showing significant improvements from baseline to posttest and sustained positive outcomes at follow-up. Thus, the evidence highlights the intervention’s long-lasting positive impact on both the academic and personal well-being of the participants (Table 4).

Table 4 One-way ANOVA scores on MEAT at time (1, 2 and 3) series

The one-way ANOVA results showed a significant improvement in academic achievement among TVET students who received CBT and MBSR. Their mean scores increased from 47.15 (SD = 10.54) pre-intervention to 77.02 (SD = 8.57) post-intervention and 82.03 (SD = 9.94) at follow-up, with a statistically significant effect (p =.000). Conversely, the LBM group showed negligible changes, with mean scores remaining relatively stable and no significant improvement (p =.682), reinforcing the efficacy of CBT and MBSR in enhancing students’ academic performance. Based on these outcome, we used MANCOVA to assess the collective impact of CBT and MBSR on test anxiety, academic achievement, and well-being while controlling for external influences. This approach not only isolates the true effects of the interventions but also uncovers potential interactions between psychological and academic outcomes, offering a holistic understanding of their effectiveness.

Table 5 Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) results for the effects of CBT- MBSR on test anxiety, academic achieving, and students’ Well-being

Table 5 presents the results of a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) examining the effects of CBT-MBSR on test anxiety, academic achievement, and well-being. The analysis demonstrated a significant effect of CBT-MBSR across all three dependent variables, with each showing a large effect size. Specifically, for test anxiety, the F value is 1168.52 (p =.001, η² = 0.752), indicating a strong reduction in anxiety attributed to CBT-MBSR. Similarly, academic achievement significantly increased (F = 1381.64, p <.001, η² = 0.746), whereas well-being also improved notably (F = 768.40, p <.001, η² = 0.758), confirming the positive impact of CBT-MBSR on these dimensions. Additionally, the interaction effects between treatment and group type were significant across all variables, suggesting that the specific CBT-MBSR approach applied within the treatment group notably influenced outcomes. The interaction effects for test anxiety (F = 2178.40, p <.001, η² = 0.853), academic achievement (F = 2950.48, p <.001, η² = 0.775), and well-being (F = 1535.45, p <.001, η² = 0.750) suggest that tailored CBT-MBSR strategies for the TG participants were especially effective. High adjusted R² values for test anxiety (0.857), academic achievement (0.826), and well-being (0.841) further validate that a significant portion of the variance in these outcomes is explained by the treatment and its interactions. These findings confirm the robust effectiveness of CBT-MBSR in reducing test anxiety, boosting academic performance, and enhancing well-being. The notable interaction effects indicate that adapting CBT to group-specific characteristics could further strengthen its impact, optimizing outcomes for diverse student groups.

Discussion of findings

We first tested the hypothesis one that Cognitive‒Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) have significant negative impact on students’ academic test anxiety, mindfulness, and subjective fitness over time as measured using SGAATS, VEMS and VESSFM. The findings of this study demonstrated that CBT-MBSR had a significant negative impact on academic test anxiety while simultaneously enhancing mindfulness and subjective fitness among TVET students. The significant reduction in academic test and examination anxiety among the treatment group compared to the waitlist control group reinforced the effectiveness of these interventions. These findings aligned with the results of Eneogu et al. (2024), who established that CBT significantly reduced academic stress among secondary school economics students in rural communities. The observed improvements in mindfulness and subjective fitness further underscored the broader psychological and physical benefits of these interventions, consistent with the conclusions drawn by Nakao et al. [35], who highlighted the efficacy of CBT in managing stress-related disorders. The findings of the present study corroborated the results of Evriani and Fardana [16], who found that a reduction in academic anxiety following CBT intervention contributed to lower levels of academic procrastination among undergraduate students. Similarly, Jaismin et al. (2023) reported that mindfulness-based interventions effectively improved well-being among rural adolescents experiencing academic anxiety. These studies collectively supported the premise that targeted psychological interventions could lead to meaningful and lasting improvements in students’ mental health and academic experiences. Moreover, the sustained effects of CBT and MBSR on test anxiety reduction, mindfulness, and subjective fitness at the follow-up stage indicated the long-term efficacy of these interventions. This finding resonated with the meta-analysis conducted by Fulambarkar et al. [19], which cautioned that mindfulness-based interventions yielded enduring positive outcomes on adolescents’ stress, depression, and anxiety when properly implemented in school settings. Furthermore, Carpenter et al. [12] provided robust evidence through a meta-analysis, affirming that CBT remained an effective intervention for anxiety and related disorders, which further validated the present study’s results.

Contrastingly, Bayangard [7] suggested that while interventions targeting student anxiety improved academic performance, their effectiveness depended on individual differences in responsiveness to treatment. This perspective implied that although CBT and MBSR were highly effective in the current study, variations in individual responses should be considered in future research. Additionally, Dodeen and Alharballeh [13] emphasized that academic anxiety was significantly influenced by attitudes toward measurement and evaluation, suggesting that while psychological interventions were beneficial, academic policies and instructional practices also played a crucial role in managing test anxiety. Overall, the findings of this study reinforced the substantial benefits of CBT and MBSR in mitigating academic test anxiety, enhancing mindfulness, and improving subjective fitness among TVET students. The high effect sizes observed across the study provided compelling evidence of the robustness and efficacy of these interventions, confirming their potential as sustainable strategies for promoting students’ psychological well-being and academic success. Future research could explore personalized intervention approaches to maximize effectiveness across diverse student populations.

The findings of hypothesis two, which examined the impact of CBT-MBSR on academic achievement, provide strong empirical support for the effectiveness of this intervention in fostering positive academic outcomes. The significant increase in academic achievement among students who participated in CBT-MBSR aligns with the growing body of research emphasizing the role of cognitive restructuring and mindfulness in enhancing cognitive functioning and learning efficacy [3]. The results are consistent with previous studies that have demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral interventions in reducing maladaptive cognitive patterns and improving academic performance by fostering better self-regulation and stress management skills [4]; Eneogu, Ugwuanyi, & Ugwuanyi [15]),. Furthermore, the substantial effect sizes observed reinforce the argument that integrating CBT-MBSR into educational programs can serve as a strategic tool for mitigating academic barriers associated with anxiety and stress. This supports the assertion by Bayangard [7] that students with lower anxiety levels are more likely to exhibit higher levels of academic performance due to improved concentration, information retention, and engagement.

The findings on hypothesis three, which explored the impact of CBT-MBSR on well-being, further validate the efficacy of the intervention in promoting holistic student development. The significant improvements observed in students’ well-being after undergoing CBT-MBSR resonate with prior research indicating that cognitive-behavioral interventions, particularly when integrated with mindfulness techniques, enhance emotional regulation, reduce distress, and improve overall psychological health [16]. The positive effect on well-being observed in this study corroborates the findings of Eneogu et al. [15], who highlighted that CBT interventions provide students with the necessary coping mechanisms to navigate academic stressors effectively. Additionally, the strong interaction effects suggest that group-specific adaptations of CBT-MBSR are particularly beneficial in tailoring interventions to meet students’ unique psychological needs, thereby maximizing the intervention’s effectiveness.

Moreover, the high adjusted R² values across all dependent variables underscore the robust explanatory power of CBT-MBSR in predicting improvements in test anxiety, academic achievement, and well-being. The findings substantiate the argument that mindfulness-based cognitive-behavioral approaches provide a comprehensive framework for addressing the multifaceted challenges students face in academic environments. The interaction effects observed further emphasize that interventions that consider individual and group-specific characteristics can optimize outcomes and ensure broader applicability across diverse student populations. The results reinforce the call for the integration of structured CBT-MBSR programs in educational settings to enhance academic resilience, reduce anxiety, and promote overall student well-being [3, 7].

Practical implications for TVET administrators, educators and future researchers

The findings of the study have practical implications and have placed responsibility on TVET administrators, educators, and future researchers.

The effectiveness of CBT-MBSR in reducing test anxiety and improving students’ well-being suggests that administrators in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions should reconsider their current support systems. There is a strong case for integrating psychological interventions, such as CBT-MBSR, into student services. Administrators might explore setting up dedicated wellness centers or incorporating CBT-MBSR services into existing student health facilities. This would not only address test anxiety but also support broader mental health needs, which could help reduce dropout rates and improve student retention. Additionally, investing in professional development for staff to recognize and address student anxiety and stress is essential. By making mental health a priority, TVET administrators can create a more supportive and productive environment that fosters both academic and personal growth. TVET educators also play a critical role in addressing student anxiety and improving academic performance. The findings of this study established that incorporating elements of CBT-MBSR into classroom practices such as mindfulness exercises, stress management techniques, and cognitive restructuring can lead to improved student engagement and learning outcomes. Educators could consider starting their classes with these techniques or integrating them throughout the lesson. This approach not only enhances academic achievement but also creates a more supportive learning environment, benefiting students both academically and emotionally. The findings from this study also open several areas for future research. Future studies should explore the long-term effects of CBT-MBSR on various aspects of student life and learning outcomes in TVET settings. It would also be valuable to compare CBT-MBSR with other psychological interventions to assess its relative effectiveness. Another important area for research is the scalability of CBT-MBSR interventions, especially in diverse cultural and educational settings within the TVET framework. As research in this area continues, it will be essential to ensure that interventions are both effective and culturally appropriate, providing a strong evidence base for the integration of mental health practices in educational settings.

Strengths of the study

This study introduced a unique approach by combining CBT-MBSR to address anxiety in Measurement and Evaluation courses within TVET settings. This dual approach offers a holistic solution to help students manage stress while also improving academic performance, setting a strong foundation for future research (Jaismin et al., 2023; Pinto, Veiga, & Macedo [38]),. This study not only alleviated anxiety but also contributed to students’ long-term emotional resilience, providing new insights into educational mental health practices. One of the key strengths of this study is its focus on the CBT-MBSR within the TVET context, which fills an important gap in the literature, which has focused mainly on higher education. The research is methodologically sound, thoroughly examining the effects of CBT-MBSR on key variables such as test anxiety, academic achievement, and student well-being. This comprehensive evaluation offers solid evidence of the effectiveness of CBT-MBSR, demonstrating how psychological interventions can improve both academic outcomes and mental health. By integrating CBT-MBSR into teaching strategies, this study enhances pedagogical approaches and offers valuable insights that could inform policy development and educational practices. This approach promotes a more holistic view of student development, ensuring that both academic and emotional needs are addressed within TVET institutions.

Limitations

One limitation of the study was the potential variation in participants’ prior exposure to cognitive-behavioral strategies, which may have influenced the results. To address this, the intervention followed a standardized protocol for cognitive restructuring techniques, as outlined by McClure et al. [34]. This ensured that any improvements in anxiety management were directly linked to the intervention, reducing the impact of participants’ previous knowledge of similar methods. Another limitation was the use of self-reported measures, which may have introduced response bias and affected the accuracy of the reported changes in anxiety levels. To overcome this, the study included practical exercises within the CBT-MBSR framework, as suggested by Evriani & Fardana [16]. These exercises provided observable outcomes that allowed the researchers to crosscheck the self-reported data with actual behavioral changes, increasing the reliability of the results. Additionally, the follow-up period was relatively short, limiting the ability to assess the long-term effects of the intervention. However, the use of systematic exposure techniques helped manage anxiety responses in a controlled and gradual manner throughout the study. This approach allowed the research team to track both immediate and ongoing improvements, suggesting that the CBT-MBSR intervention could have lasting benefits beyond the short-term post-treatment period.

Conclusion

This study explored the combined effects of CBT-MBSR on test anxiety, mindfulness, subjective fitness, academic performance, and student well-being within the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) context. Using advanced statistical methods such as mixed repeated measures (MRM) ANOVA, repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), the findings decisively demonstrate the substantial effectiveness of CBT-MBSR in educational settings. The results consistently showed that CBT-MBSR significantly reduced test anxiety, with these reductions persisting throughout the study’s follow-up assessments. This sustained decrease in anxiety likely created the mental space necessary for improved academic performance, as students were better able to concentrate and engage with their coursework without the cognitive interference of anxiety. Furthermore, incorporating MBSR within the CBT framework provided additional benefits, leading to significant improvements in students’ overall psychological well-being. This dual-modality approach not only alleviated specific test-related anxieties but also enhanced broader aspects of mental health, contributing to the students’ overall development. These findings underscore the transformative impact of combining CBT and MBSR, suggesting that such interventions can play a crucial role in supporting both academic success and personal growth in TVET students.

Recommendations and suggestions for further studies

On the basis of these findings, the following recommendations are made:

• 1. Educational institutions, particularly those in the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector, should prioritize the integration of CBT-MBSR programs into their student support services. This approach will not only help manage test anxiety but also enhance the overall learning environment, contributing to students’ success in both academic and personal development.

• 2. School counselors and mental health professionals should expand the application of CBT-MBSR techniques to address a broader range of academic-related stressors. By targeting irrational fears and anxieties that lead to negative behaviors such as examination malpractice, these interventions can foster healthier student behaviors and academic integrity.

• 3. Future research should investigate the impact of CBT-MBSR interventions across various academic disciplines and diverse student groups. This will help validate the generalizability of the current findings and assess how these interventions can be effectively adapted to different cultural and educational contexts.

• 4. Future studies should conduct longitudinal research to assess the long-term effects of CBT-MBSR interventions on test anxiety and academic achievement. Such studies will provide critical insights into the enduring benefits of these interventions, guiding future educational practices and student support strategies.